Factors influencing farming households’ climate change adaptation strategies in Central Vietnam

PLOS One | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328058 July 10, 2025 15 / 22 varieties (+8.7%) than female-headed households. Similarly, household size (SIZE) showed differentiated effects: while increasing household size decreased the probability of adopting salt-tolerant rice varieties by 9.7%, it increased the proba- bility of lotus-fish adoption by 7.1%. Education level (EDU) exhibited mixed effects. Higher educational attainment negatively impacted the likelihood of adopting shrimp farming (−5.8%) and salt-tolerant rice (−17.7%) but positively influenced the adoption of lotus-fish farming (+9.6%), likely due to the technical complexity of this method. Age (AGE) was positively correlated with the adoption of salt-tolerant rice varieties (+0.5% per year) but negatively associated with shrimp (−0.7%) and lotus-fish farming (−0.2%), which require higher physical labor and technical adapta- tion. No quadratic relationship with age squared was observed. Monthly income (INC) positively influenced the adoption of shrimp farming (+3.9%), salt-tolerant rice (+6.7%), and lotus-fish (+1%) models, while it had a negative effect on vegetable production (−3.2%). Farming experience (EXP) had a positive impact on vegetable production (+1.1%), lotus-fish (+0.4%), and salt-tolerant rice (+6.1%) but reduced the likelihood of shrimp adoption (−1.5%). The proportion of salinized land (SAL) was positively associated with shrimp farming (+0.6%), vegetable (+3.1%), and lotus-

fish farming (+5.6%), while it reduced the adoption probability of new rice varieties (−0.8%). Similarly, the current position of land affected by salinity (POS) increased rice adoption (+5.4%) but decreased shrimp (−9.3%) and vegetable (−6.1%) uptake. Agricultural land area (ARE) positively influenced the adoption of shrimp (+0.2%) and lotus-fish (+4.2%) methods, but negatively affected rice variety adoption (−4.3%), suggesting that land-extensive methods like shrimp farming are more feasible for larger landholders. Access to climate information (INF) increased adoption probabilities of salt-tolerant rice (+12.1%) and shrimp farming (+10.5%). Membership in civic organizations (MEM) significantly enhanced the probability of adopting all strategies: rice (+34.2%), shrimp (+12.3%), vegetable (+9.8%), and lotus-fish (+4.6%). Access to public credit (CRE) marginally influenced shrimp (+0.8%) and lotus-fish (+0.6%) farming adoption but was not statistically significant for other strategies, likely due to limited credit access among surveyed households. Finally, participation in training programs (TRA) had a strong positive impact on adoption of all strategies except vegetable production. Households participating in training were more likely to adopt salt-tolerant rice (+8.6%), vegetable production (+4.2%), and lotus-fish (+3.7%) methods. 4. Discussions The findings derived from the MNL model substantiate the proposition that climate change adaptation at the household

level is a complex and multidimensional process influenced by a confluence of socio-economic, demographic, institutional, and environmental factors. These results not only align with existing theoretical frameworks and empirical evidence from similar contexts in Asia and Africa but also contribute novel insights specific to Vietnam’s Central Coastal region—a zone characterized by high climate vulnerability and socio-ecological diversity. A key insight from the analysis is the gendered nature of climate adaptation. The data clearly indicate that male-headed households are more likely to adopt a broader set of adaptation strategies, including those requiring greater technical knowledge and access to resources, such as shrimp and lotus-fish farming. This pattern is consistent with prior research by Datta et al (2024), Ngigi et al (2017) and Belay et al (2017) which found that men in rural settings are often better integrated into formal and informal networks, have greater access to agricultural extension services, and possess stronger agency in household decision-making [20,24,55]. Moreover, Parry et al. (2023) and Sallah et al (2023) also emphasized that entrenched gender norms continue to limit women’s access to productive assets and information, thereby constrain- ing their adaptive capacity [17,23]. These findings reinforce the importance of integrating gender-sensitive policies in climate adaptation programs, particularly in rural agrarian settings where intra-household dynamics and social hierarchies influence resource distribution and decision-making.