Sustaining indigenous Maasai Alalili silvo-pastoral conservation systems for improved community livelihood and biodiversity conservation in East African rangelands

Shapiro-Wilk test for normality was conducted. A homogeneity test of variance was also done by using Levene’s test. A generalized estimating equations (GEE) model was applied to assess the effects of land uses and Alalili types on the size of Alalili systems (Eq 3). Similarly, the GEE model was used to assess the relationship between Alalili size and livestock herd size (Eq 4) through the R version 4.2.3 [73, 74]. geeglmðformula ¼ Area � Land use þ Types of Alalili þ Alaliliclass size; family ¼ gaussianðÞ; data ¼ e; id ¼ Types of Alalili; corstr ¼ }exchangeable}Þ ðEq 3Þ geeglmðformula ¼ Total Livestock � Types of Alalili þ Land use þ Age þ Area of Alalili; family ¼ gaussianðÞ; data ¼ A; id ¼ Types of Alalili; corstr ¼ }exchangeable}Þ ðEq 4Þ The GEE model equation considered the aspects of land use, type of Alalili, and size of Ala- lili as factors whereby the baseline variables were GCA, Communal Alalili, and Large size respectively. The dependent variables in the model equations comprised of size of Alalili sys- tems in terms of area (ha) and livestock herd size (total number of livestock grazed in Alalili systems). The independent variables comprised of types of Alalili systems, land use categories, class size, and age of surveyed Alalili systems. A p-value of p < 0.05 was considered significant. 3. Results 3.1 Classification of Maasai Alalili silvo-pastoral conservation systems Two types of Alalili systems; communal and private were identified in the Maasai pastoral communities in both Arusha and Manyara regions. Communal Alalili were reported to be

silvo-pastoral systems owned and managed by a village or a village section for the purpose of providing fodder/forage to livestock during the acute dry season. Further classification of com- munal Alalili systems in terms of size determined three categories; small (1–924 ha), medium (925–1,320 ha), and large (above 1,320 ha). They are generally large in size compared to private Alalili and allow large numbers of livestock, weak and/or sick, as well as lactating herds to graze based on the rules and regulations set up by the village rangeland management commit- tee. The livestock are allowed to graze in the communal Alalili during the acute dry season only in numbers ranging between 50–450 herds with respect to the size of the communal Ala- lili being grazed. Many of the communal Alalili (74%) were found far from the settlement areas, they were found in the wilderness (either on high or low land) and were not fenced (Fig 2). They were also reported to be found in the protected areas where they are utilized as shared grazing resources between livestock and wildlife. The majority of them were old (80 and 90 years) although some were reported to be established recently (10 or 15 years old). Private Alalili on the other hand were reported to be silvo-pastoral conservation systems that are owned and managed by individual families or a clan referred to as a Boma. Some pri- vate Alalili were observed to be privately owned by investors who aimed at high production of livestock products. They are further classified into three size categories; small (1–156 ha),

medium (157–261 ha), and large (above 261 ha). They are generally considered smaller in size compared to communal Alalili systems to enhance suitability and sustainable fodder availabil- ity to only a smaller number of livestock at a range of 30–150 herds. Occasionally, private Ala- lili owned by investors has a large size (250–1,000 ha) considering the large number of livestock being kept by an investor (500–3,000 herds). They are meant to provide fodder to calves, weak and/or sick, as well as lactating livestock. The grazing season allowed to feed such livestock in the private Alalili is determined by the Alalili owner. It was reported that private Alalili have no definite grazing season and the majority of them (94%) were closer to the PLOS ONE Sustaining Alalili systems in rangelands of East Africa PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0303649 May 16, 2024 8 / 24