Heterosexist microaggressions, student academic experience and perception of campus climate: Findings from an Italian higher education context

describe someone, or something (referring to objects or situations), that is socially awkward. In this case, the message is that this person, activity, or thing is not valuable or enjoyable. Mes- sages propelled by microaggressions based upon sexual orientation or gender identity support social structures based on exclusion [16] and reinforce the cultural message that violations of heteronormativity are unacceptable [17]. Heterosexist microaggressions are common on campuses [18,19] and appear to be even more prevalent than blatant hostility [20]. One possible explanation for this phenomenon is that, in comparison to blatantly hostile remarks, these manifestations are often dismissed as nondiscriminatory, not necessarily related to anti-gay prejudice, and considered harmless by those who use them [16,21]. Using the phrase “that’s so gay”, for instance, may be legitimized by contemporary slang use, such that its use is separated from the group that is its target [17]. Although research on the detrimental effects of microaggressions based upon sexual orien- tation is still underdeveloped, with most of the studies using a qualitative approach [13,22], it would be difficult to argue that these kinds of overt forms of discrimination and aggression have no consequences on the health of sexual minorities. As theorized within the minority stress model [23], individuals from marginalized groups experience chronic stress due to stigma, prejudice, and discrimination that shapes their life environments. This chronic stress

put them at risk for poor mental and physical health. Overall, the studies that have explored the effects of microaggressions on LGBQ+ students health appear to support the minority stress model. The 2017 National School Climate Survey reported that 91.8% of LGBQ+ stu- dents in K-12 and college who heard “gay” used in a negative way (e.g., “that’s so gay”) felt distressed because of this language [24]. In a study by Woodford and colleagues, whose aim was to evaluate the social and physical well-being of LGB college students who reported hear- ing the phrase “that’s so gay” [21], 87% of the respondents reported hearing that phrase at least once over the past year. This experience was associated with a high frequency of headaches, poor eating or trouble with appetite, and feeling left out at the university. Other similar studies found that microaggressions targeting sexual minority students on campus were positively related to psychological distress in LGBQ+ college students [19,25], independent from experi- ences of direct victimization. Microaggressions and student academic experiences Previous studies reported that heterosexist microaggressions create a hostile climate for LGBQ + individuals and groups [7]. Furthermore, encountering discrimination on campus can interfere with the academic development of sexual minority students [26]. In fact, due to the psychological stress associated with discrimination [20], LGBQ+ students may withdraw, both psychologically and physically, from their institution, and thus develop negative interactions on campus, damag-

ing perceptions of the overall academic experience, and negative overall perceptions of campus climate [27]. However, how heterosexist microaggressions contribute to negative academic devel- opment among sexual minority and heterosexual students remains under-researched [27]. Academic development is generally considered to be a multifaceted construct that involves both academic (in terms of student’s academic performance and his or her level of intellectual development, commitments to the institution, and goals associated with graduation and career) and social integration components [28]. Past work on heterosexism evidenced that environmental experiences of discrimination may interfere with students’ academic function- ing [5,10,26,27], paying most attention to dimensions of academic integration and underscor- ing the investigation of students’ social integration within the academia, including the quality of peer-group interactions and student interactions with faculty, along with perceptions of the faculty’s concern for student development. Mathies and colleagues [27], for instance, analyzed PLOS ONE Heterosexist microaggressions and campus climate PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0231580 April 16, 2020 3 / 16